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Kenya Bans GM foods

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Genetically modified foods are considered as a lock to food crisis that world might be facing in the future. Methods of production of food is about to reach a new level, which promises more quantity, and better quality than conventional farming methods. All should have expected the world to accept the GM foods whole heartedly. But recently Kenya put a total ban on GM foods. This forces us to rethink on the issue.

Kenyan government put a total ban on GM foods on November 21, 2012. The order was initially passed by Kenyan cabinet on November 8 pointing out the safety issues of the GM foods and later on November 21, the Kenyan Ministry of Public Health ordered for the ban. The structural corn deficit of Kenya will rapidly rise from 300,000 metric tons according to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) thanks to this ban. The import of GM foods through the port of Mombasa was already in a crisis following the strict rules on bio safety passed in 2009. Now these imports will certainly come to a complete stop as any movements to break the ban is subject to prosecution. This ban was an after effect of the studies conducted by Gilles Eric Seralini et. al, which was released by the French university. This is one among the studies which was very badly received by the whole scientific community. Seralini conducted studies on the side effects of GM foods on rats. His studies found rats getting cancer because of the prolonged use of the GM foods. Seralini used genetically modified corns which were developed for herbicide resistance. His studies stated that rodents were affected with cancer when regularly fed with this particular variety of corn called NK603. Even though many opinioned that this study does not have enough scientific adequacy, many countries like Russia and Kazakhstan put an immediate ban on the import of NK603 following the release of the Seralini’s study reports. But following the reports Kenya put a complete ban on any import or business of all kinds of GM foods. This ban is also in accordance with the National Bio safety Act of 2009, Kenya. Most of the biotechnology community spread over the whole globe opinions that even the whole National Bio safety Act will block further researches and developments in Kenyan biotechnology field, even though its objectives are very simple that includes consideration of safety issues created by the modern biotechnology activities, and to avoid any effect on human health.

Kenya is a country that suffered from severe famine just a couple of years ago. It was caused because of extreme draught conditions. The United Nations statistics account that around 3.75 million Kenyan people were affected because of the famine. The GM foods have got the capability of making the country overcoming any such future crisis in the country. But the recent exercise of ban on GM foods puts this solution in a hold. Drought conditions in Kenya will disable any attempts of recovering the nation’s food security by conventional cultivation methods. This can view can be strengthened by the fact that some areas of the country still records a single water source for around 45 kilometers of radius during some seasons of the year. Imported GM foods have already played a vital role in overcoming the famine conditions of Kenya. Future precaution methods could have been taken by genetical modification of crops that can enable the crop plants to survive and yield better in low water conditions. The National Bio safety Authority board chair Miriam Kinyua says that the ban will not affect any bio technology researches that are being held in the country and they all will continue. And she further explains that this ban will only intensify the researches in order to provide better and clear data about the safety aspects of genetically modified food. But the scientists respond negatively to this statement and they opinion that any researches going on within the country related to genetically modified organisms will come to a complete halt if the government refuses to rethink their decision.

The African Biotechnology Stakeholders Forum (ABSF) requested the Kenyan government to immediately reconsider the decision of ban on GM foods. But Kenyan government currently announced that it will think on lifting the ban only after a crystal clear report on the safety of genetically modified organisms are obtained. The study conducted by Seralini is questioned by food safety authorities all over the world. This is because Seralini’s study does not have proper design and methodology techniques. These set of food safety authorities include European Food Safety Authority. Following the release of study results by Seralini and the ban on GM foods by Kenyan government a proposal has been sent to the Permanent Representative Council of African Union. A final verdict on this matter can be expected after the African Union summit (AU summit), which will be held from January 20th to 28th, 2013. The matter will be discussed for final decisions in the AU summit. This proposal is backed up by a shocking report stating that GM food did not deliver any the advantages that it was supposed to deliver. African Union is likely to pass this decision of complete ban on GM foods considering small scale famers and retailers across the continent. They are still in pursuit of clinging to their own conventional methods of agriculture, which will is sure not to help them from overcoming the constant food crisis that the continent is facing.

A big part of African continent is stuck with poverty and famine. Many are still dying because of hunger. This situation makes the primary objective of the continent to ensure food security and eradicate poverty. The genetically modified foods are capable of giving a big hand in ensuring food security to the whole continent. They will enable to grow better yielding crops in conditions which are less favoring for the plant growth. The Kenyan government and African Union should take necessary steps to ensure the food safety of GM foods. This is necessary for Africa than any other continent in the globe, since they are the ones who are facing the risk of food security most. Immediate reconsideration of the ban after ensuring safety is essential.

restriction mapping problems

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Hi all! Any ideas how to solve these problems? Any help would be greatly appreciated! ThanksBig Grin


Problem 1:
A linear piece of DNA is cut with restriction enzymes HindIII, BamHI, and EcoRI in single, double and triple digests. The resultant restriction fragments are separated by electrophoresis in an agarose gel. The sizes (in kb) of the fragments are indicated below. Construct a well-labeled restriction map from this data. If two fragments are the same size, they are listed once.
BamHI HindIII EcoRI BamHI+ BamHI+ HindIII+ BamHI+
HindIII EcoRI EcoRI EcoRI+
HindIII
3kb 5kb 1kb 2kb 1kb 1kb 1kb
7kb 9kb 3kb 3kb 4kb 2kb
5kb 6kb 5kb 3kb
4kb
RESTRICTION MAP: ?


Problem 2.
A plasmid sample was digested with three enzymes (Pst1, BglII, and EcoRI) in single, double and triple digests. The resultant restriction fragments are separated by electrophoresis in an agarose gel. The sizes (in kb) of the fragments are indicated below. Construct a well-labeled restriction map from this data. If two fragments are the same size, they are listed once.
PstI BglII EcoRI PstI+ Pst+ BglII+ Pst+
BglII EcoRI EcoRI Bg1II+
EcoRI
4.4kb 16.9kb 6.1kb 2.1kb 2.6kb 4.9kb 2.1kb
12.5kb 10.8kb 2.3kb 3.8kb 5.9kb 2.3kb
12.5kb 4.4kb 6.1kb 2.6kb
6.1kb 3.8kb
6.1kb
RESTRICTION MAP:




Problem 3. A plasmid sample was digested with three enzymes (NotI, EcoRI, and XhoI) in single, double, and triple digests. The resultant restriction fragments are separated by electrophoresis in an agarose gel. The sizes (in kb) of the fragments are indicated below. Construct a well-labeled restriction map from this data. If two fragments are the same size, they are listed once.
NotI EcoRI XhoI NotI+ NotI+ XhoI+ NotI+
EcoRI XhoI EcoRI EcoRI+
XhoI
3.8kb 21.9kb 10.5kb 3.8kb 3.8kb 4.1kb 3.8kb
19.4kb 21.6kb 11.4kb 7.9kb 5.1kb 6.4kb 4.1kb
20.3kb 21.6kb 10.1kb 10.5kb 11.4kb 5.1kb 10.2kb 16.5kb 15.2kb 6.4kb
11.5kb 10.1kb
RESTRICTION MAP:?

Bio sensors - What are they?

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Bio sensors are devices that track, detect, record and transmit the data about analyte that combines a biological component with a physico chemical transducer component. A bio sensor consists of components; a biological receptor part like tissue, micro organism, enzyme, antibody etc, a detector element which can be optical, piezo electric, electrochemical etc and other electronic parts like sensors, signal processors etc. Leland Clark is known as the Father of Bio sensors. Clark invented Clark’s electrode which can be used to measure the amount of oxygen in blood or any other fluid, and this formed a turning point in the field of bio sensors.

Bio sensors are developing towards the horizons because of its infinite uses in a wide area. Once, bio sensors where tools for providing answers to the questions that perplexed scientists about the biochemical changes occurring inside every living organism. Now they have evolved and attained a commercial status through its applications like glucose monitoring in diabetes patients. Tremendous leaps in the fields of electronic and software engineering are aiding the growth of bio sensors, which are turning them into one of the common tools of bio technologist.

The bio sensors can be electrochemical, ion channel switch or others like piezo electrical in sensor functioning. Each of the components of the bio sensor may vary according to the basic sensor principle it utilizes. As mentioned, the bio sensor consist of three major components which includes biological receptor, detector element or the transducer and other electronic parts including sensors and signal processors. The biological receptor plays the lead in the bio sensor’s mechanisms. Catalytic enzymes have acquired the place for themselves among the biological receptors. This is because the catalytic enzyme’s reactions give path to production of a variety of measurable products. These include heat, light, protons and electrons. Bio sensors applied in the glucose monitoring mainly depends on catalytic enzyme glucose oxidase which is a catalytic enzyme. In the presence of glucose oxidase, glucose reacts with oxygen to produce gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide. The first generation glucose bio sensors relied on the produced hydrogen peroxide. This is achieved by measuring the electron acceptance by oxygen. But due to stoichiometric variations, this measure could not be relied upon completely. In this context the second generation glucose bio sensors used artificial mediators that are synthetic electron acceptors like tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane, phenothiazine, ferricyanide etc. With the major exception of glucose bio sensor, most of the other bio sensors depend on antibodies as receptors. The monoclonal antibody increased the popularity of use of antibodies as receptors in bio sensors. Bio sensors also use aptamers which are nucleic acid ligands as receptors.

The bio sensors find its application ranging from estimation of blood glucose to complicated research studies in biotechnology. With the use of glucose bio sensors, long gone are the days of pricking the finger tips everyday for estimating the blood glucose levels. Especially diabetes mellitus patients reporting continuous and high fluctuations in their blood glucose levels, of diabetes mellitus Type I, will find that glucose bio sensors are a boon. Most modern bio sensors incorporate chips that the naked eyes struggles to find out. The size of chips in a bio sensor system has gone down as small as a size of 0.5 x 2 millimeters. The patient can keep the blood glucose levels in check as the results are continuous and could be connected to a mobile device. Single bio sensor can last for months which also add the benefit of durability. It can be hoped that diabetes mellitus; one of the biggest health challenges of 21st century and one among the leading causes of death according to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; can be held at a check thanks to the invaluable contribution of biotechnology. The next major application of bio sensors is in the food industry. Increasing world population is demanding higher food supplies, which paves the way for a big jump in the food industry. This same reason also demands much more advanced safety measures in the production and distribution of food. Pathogens and food toxins that are the causative factors of food poisoning are a real threat now. It is in this scenario that the applications of the bio sensors come in handy. Bio sensors can be used to detect these pathogens and food toxins. Bio sensors are also used in estimation of routine body fluid tests of blood, urine etc., and water pollution detection for pathogens, toxins, pesticides, check on environmental pollution and estimating various polluting agents, in the field of pharmacology for studying the actions of various drugs, countering bio terrorism activities through the detection of air borne pathogens, detection of toxic metabolites like mycotoxins, etc. Bio sensors have also found industrial application in the bio reactors for continuous monitoring of carbon sources, dissolved gases, in fermentation etc. This could be utilized for the optimization of biological reactions in the bio reactors and hence leading to maximum yield.

One of the ultra modern applications of bio sensors are the DNA bio sensors. It is the ultrasensitive electrochemical detection of DNA based on nanoparticle tags. Here nucleic acid is used as the bio recognition element. DNA sensors are used instead of conventional micro arrays which are widely used for the detection of DNA sequences until recent. DNA bio sensors promise genetic field a higher level of development, the most major being in the medical diagnostics. Almost all of the genetic disorders could be studied in detail using DNA sensors which in turn will lead to creation of an appropriate solution in future. This occurs on a stage where majority of genetic disorders are moving on without a proper remedy or treatment. It will also find its way into forensic sciences, a field where ultra modern methods are now unavoidable. DNA sensors can further extent to agriculture, where it could used for elimination of certain plant diseases and at the same time for the development of better variety of crops.

Bio sensors are forming itself into a platform where the whole field of biotechnology can place its foot on for development. Starting from the invention of the Clark’s electrode by Leland Clark, the booming evolution process of bio sensors have now reached in the inventions like Quantum dots, Nanoparticles, Nanowires, Nanotubes etc. The complete understanding of the extremely complicated bio chemical processes made by biotechnology is attributed to bio sensors.

Various Factors contributing to Bacterial Classification

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Bacteria a part of the microbial flora is omnipresent either being beneficial or harmful or harmless to other living forms like plants, animals and humans. With over millions of bacteria present in the planet, it is not an easy job to identify, isolate and study a particular species or particular bacteria as such. But thanks to the microbiologists who categorized bacteria based on basic and important factors making all the bacteria fall under any one of the categories and thus making the process of isolation and identification much easier.

Bacteria are classified based on various factors like shape (morphology), Cell wall structure, Respiration (metabolism), type of nutritional source, characteristic and environmental factor.

Shape
Bacteria are of different shapes and are classified based on their morphology into Bacillus, Coccus, spiral, comma shaped and flagellated.
Bacilli: Rod shaped bacteria. Diplobacilli (2 cells), tetrad (4 cells), palisade (two cells arranged parallel) or sterptobacilli (chain arrangement).
Coccus: Spherical shaped bacteria which is further classified as monococcus (a cell), diplococci (2 cells), streptococci (cells arranged like chain) and cells in bunch (Staphylcocci).
Spiral: Spiral shaped bacteria sub divided into spirilla and spirochetes.
Comma shaped: Vibrio cholera is an example of comma shaped bacterium.
Flagellated: Some bacteria have flagella projecting from the cell membrane which is used for mobility and are classified under the group flagellated bacterium. Atrichous (no flagella), monotrichous (uni flagella), amphitrichous (bi flagella) and polytrichous (more flagella).

Cell wall structure
Gram’s staining is the procedure introduced by a Danish scientist, Cristian Gram in the year 1884 which is used till date to differentiate the bacteria based on their cell wall structure. The cell wall of bacteria is composed of peptidoglycans and lipopolysachharide and the varying amount of these two components is used to classify the bacteria by Gram staining into Gram positive and Gram Negative bacteria. Gram staining procedure involves step by step treatment of the cells with dyes.
1. Smear bacteria on a slide
2. Add Drops of Crystal violet dye to the smeared slide
3. Add a mordant solution
4. Wash with ethanol
5. Add Safranin dye and once the slide is ready observe under microscope
Gram positive bacteria appears violet as it retains the violet dye which is related to the thick layer composed of peptidoglycans and Gram negative bacteria appears pink as the treatment with ethanol washes off the violet dye by disrupting the external lipopolysaccharide layer and hence the secondly added red dye is retained. Gram negative bacteria have thin walls.

Respiration
Respiration of bacteria is generally seen as a metabolic process which involves production of energy by breaking down the sugar molecule. Some bacteria require oxygen for this metabolic process and are called as aerobes and bacteria which do not require oxygen for this metabolic process are classified as anaerobes. There is another category called as facultative anaerobes which metabolize either way (both in the presence and absence of oxygen).

Nutritional Source
Like herbivores, carnivores and omnivores in animals and humans bacteria are also classified based on the type of energy source utilized by them for survival. Accordingly they are grouped as, photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, heterotrophs, symbiotic, saprophytes and parasites.

Characteristic
Bacteria thrive by being either harmless or harmful or beneficial to the other life forms. Accordingly they are classified as beneficial and pathogenic bacteria. There are many bacteria being isolated and identified in the area of biodegradation and are considered as beneficial microbes for its potential to degrade the waste and can also be called environmental friendly. Another example for the beneficial bacteria is the bacterial flora present in the gut which helps in proper degradation of the food molecules thus enhancing the absorption and hence is considered as beneficial. The bacteria classified as pathogens are known to cause infections and disease in the host organism.

Environment
All bacteria do not survive in common environmental condition. Different bacteria survives different environmental conditions and based on this factor bacteria are classified as Mesophiles, neutrophiles, extremophiles, acidophiles, alkaliphiles, thermophiles, psychroplhiles, halophiles and osmophiles.

Spore Formation
Different species of bacteria under unfavorable conditions form spores and remains dormant and revert back to active vegetative state under favorable environmental conditions and based on this bacteria is classified as spore forming and non-spore forming bacteria.

All the factors used to classify the bacteria acts as an important tool in identification of a bacterium and ensures better understanding while studying different species of bacteria.

Cosmetic Dentistry

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A beautiful smile with spirited, white teeth is one among-st the primary things others notice upon a primary impression.Since you merely have one probability to form an excellent initial impression,rising your look with teeth change of color will build all of the distinction.Cosmetic dentistry helps many people get a confident smile, and also corrects many dental anomalies.
Las Vegas Cosmetic Dentistry

Bangalore Bio India 2013- BioQuiz 2013

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Hi,

I’m a biotechnology student. Bangalore India Bio is conducting the largest quiz on Biotechnology. The first round is happening on Jan 30 in Bangalore. I’m thinking about participating. Is there anyone else from Bangalore who is going for this?

Discovery of Early Cognitive Problems in People with Alzheimer's Disease

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Doctors who study or treat Alzheimer's disease and its early clinical stages (mild cognitive impairment, MCI) are focused on the obvious problems with short-term memory. However, a new study suggests that people with later development of Alzheimer's disease can have problems much earlier, in the processing of semantic information or data based on previous knowledge, which could have great significance in the manner in which these patients are functioning in everyday life.

First Indications of Cognitive Problems

Terry Goldberg, PhD, a professor of psychiatry and behaviorism in the Hofstra North Shore-LIJ School of Medicine at Hofstra University and director of department for neurocognition in the Alzheimer's Disease and Memory Disorders Center at the Feinstein Institute for Medical Research in in Manhasset, New York, said that doctors have noticed a variety of cognitive disorders in patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment, but they were not systematically studied. A large number of experts noted that some of the patients find even the simplest tasks extremely confusing. In this latest study, which was published in monthly American Journal of Psychiatry, cleverly designed tests are used to analyze the ability of individuals for the processing of semantic information.

Do people with Mild Cognitive Impairment have problems in accessing certain types of prior acquired knowledge? Are there any obvious semantic problems which have not been observed? The answer is yes.

The Experiment

To test the system is semantic processing, dr Goldberg and his colleagues needed a task that does not include a verbal response. That would be confusing, and the results would be more difficult to interpret. They decided to use size to test a person's ability to use semantic information to make a conclusion on two opposed definitions. Doctor Goldberg explained: "If someone is asked what is more, the key or ant, he will respond more slowly than if you ask him what is larger, a house or a key." The greater the difference in size between the two things, the more quickly will the person, being healthy or not , recognize the difference and respond.

The study included 25 patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), 27 with Alzheimer's disease and 70 people with no cognitive problems. They found that there are significant differences between healthy controls and patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Doctor Goldberg concluded that the results indicate problems in the processing of semantic information. It is mostly seen when the patients with mild cognitive disorder and Alzheimer's disease cope with the task with small differences in size.

Then they made the task more complicated by showing patients the images of little ants and big houses or big ants and small houses. This time the patients with mild cognitive disorder and with Alzheimer's disease solved the first part of the test without any problems - when they were asked what is bigger, they chose a house, not an ant. But if the pictures did not reflect reality - a big ant looked like a little house - they were confused, answered incorrectly, or they took longer to respond.

Patients with mild cognitive impairment were somewhere between those of healthy and those with Alzheimer's disease. "When the decision was difficult, the reaction time was slower."

Would Damage to The Semantic System Influence The Everyday Functions?

To answer this question, researchers have turned to UCSD scale to evaluate the use of skills, the tool which is used in patients with mild cognitive disorder and Alzheimer's disease and in patients with schizophrenia, to determine the functional deficiencies. The test examines the ability of a person to perform complex checks or to organize a trip to the zoo for a cold day.

It's a good way to check whether someone has a problem with the semantic knowledge. Semantic processing takes place in the left temporal lobe. "The semantic system is organized as a network that reflects the various types of relationships and associations," said the researchers in the study. "Semantic data and knowledge are acquired in the larger intervals, often through a large number of repetitions, and do not reflect what has been recently adopted."

Doctor Goldberg says that this discovery is very important because it might be possible to strengthen by training the connections that arise in semantic processing. "This suggests that patients are getting slow due to semantic and not episodic memory," said Goldberg. Patients will be observed further in order to determine whether the deteriorating semantic problems worsen as the disease progresses.

Within additional article, David P. Salmon, Ph.D., from Department of Neuroscience at the University of California, said that "deficiencies in semantic memory, that this study demonstrated, confirm the suspicion that in patients with mild cognitive impairment of an anamnestic type, happens a slight cognitive impairment. Since the task did not require problematic remembering and reproduction of certain words or linguistic structures, it can be concluded that these shortcomings reflect the early and gradual loss of the integrity of semantic knowledge. "

He added that "This study proves that the deterioration of semantic memory in patients with mild cognitive impairment can contribute to the reduced ability to perform everyday activities."

Institute for Medical Research Feinstein

The Institute for Medical Research Feinstein, based in Manhasset, New York, many leading international scientists are engaged in areas such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, psychiatric disorders, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, sepsis, genetics, pulmonary hypertension, leukemia, neuroimmunology, and medical chemistry. The institute, which is part of the North Shore Health System , belongs to the top 5% of all state institutes according to scholarships awarded to research centers for health care.

A Major Step Toward Developing The Vaccine For Alzheimer's Disease


A team of researchers from the Center for Research CHU (France, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire) at the University of Laval in Quebec and pharmacological company GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) has found a way to stimulate the natural defense mechanisms of the brain in people who suffer from Alzheimer's disease. This is an important achievement, and its details have been published in the online edition of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. This research opened the door to the development of effective treatment for Alzheimer's disease and toward finding an efficient vaccine.

Future of Contraception: Special Nanomaterials to Protect Women from HIV & Pregnancy

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Nanotechnology:

Nanotechnology studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those that have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanomaterials take bigger and bigger place in our lives every day.


The only currently available way to protect against HIV and unwanted pregnancy is the condom. So even though it provides a completely satisfactory protection, sometimes its use is complicated and impractical.

New Contraception Method

Because of this reason, a team of experts from the University of Washington has developed specific nanomaterials that protect women from sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancy. It is the special type of fabric with fibers of hundreds of nanometers in size, which can release drugs and thus offer a platform for inexpensive, discreet and reusable protection.

It is a serious project, supported by the fact that the charitable foundation of Bill and Melinda Gates has donated one million U.S. dollars to University, in order to help the team that works on developing new material to devote exclusively to this task. And that is exactly what they intend to do.

"Our goal is to create the product that women can use to protect themselves from HIV and unwanted pregnancy in a discreet and reliable way. We already have drugs that are efficient, and we just need to figure out the way to make these drugs more efficient and easier to use, "said Kim Woodrow, professor of bioengineering at the University of Washington.

The material of which this "future contraception" was made, was obtained using electrospin. The scientists used an electric field to eject charged jets of fluid through the air and thus create a very fine fibers size of several hundred of nanometers. Once created, fibers can be manipulated with in various ways and thus degradability, strength and even the dimensions of the entire material can be changed. Because of its "diversity", these fibers are more suitable for the introduction of drugs into the body than conventional materials used today, mostly gels and pills. Also, the designing the fibers do not require high temperatures, so this method of contraception is completely "safe" for heat-sensitive molecules. Along with all the above, it should be noted that the material may contain some larger molecules such as proteins or antibodies that are relatively complicated to deliver into the human body using currently available methods.

Work on the project began last year when Kim Woodrow presented the idea at the meeting of the Department of Bioengineering at the University of Washington. After that, student Emily Krogstad and Cameron Ball joined, and it was this trio that was responsible for developing a prototype of what is already called "the future of contraception."

In the initial phase of the study, researchers broke down the polymers and anti-retroviral drugs that the U.S. Agency for Food and Drug Administration approved for the treatment of HIV. This was necessary in order to create the solution that can pass through the fine needle. This solution is then rapidly catapulted through the electric field, and that way the fibers are ranging from a hundred to several thousand nanometers. The fibers then "flied through the air" until they bumped into a specially designed pad that brought them together in one place. The final product is a stretchable material that can physically keep sperm at the same time release certain chemical elements and remedies against the HIV virus.

"This method allows us controlled release of several important ingredients. Also, the fiber can be adjusted to emit more or less drug, depending on the need, "says Cameron Ball.

One of the prototypes of nanomaterials is capable of decomposing in a very short time (within a few minutes), which would mean that it can give the women a very quick, convenient and discreet protection from unwanted pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. The second material dissolves slower, in aq range of a few days, and its effect can be compared with contraceptive pills. It is assumed that women will be able to choose the type of materials to be used, depending on their needs and preferences.

Another good news is that in this material, in the future, a multitude of other materials can be incorporated that would protect women from a wide range of sexually transmitted diseases. Also, it can be modified so that it contains several drugs against the HIV virus, and thus further enhance its functionality. Different fibers could be adjusted so that the drug released at different times in order to maximize their effectiveness. Actually, in this flexibility and virtually unlimited range of applications lies one of the biggest advantages of this new method of contraception. Of course, the important fact is that it is almost absolutely discreet.

It should be noted that the method of electrospin (creation of special winding materials using electric fields) is known to scientists for decades, but only recently is automated to the extent that it is possible to use it to create complex materials. The study described in this article is the first ever conducted in the field of vaginal insertion of a medicine using nanomaterials created by electrospin.

While the technology that was developed by Woodrow and contributors is certainly more discrete than condoms and potentially much more convenient than pills, diaphragms, etc., however, scientists stress that there is no one best answer when it comes to choice of contraception.

"In moments of passion is a big question is what is the solution that would appear most appropriate to person to apply it. Precisely because of that, it is important to offer more choices. Depending on the cultural background and personal preferences, each woman will decide for herself what is most convenient form of contraception, "says Krogstad.

Scientists are hoping that nanomaterials which have developed practical application, could be applied in Africa and other conservative areas precisely because they allow a large degree of discretion in the use of contraception. In this way, the scientists hope, nanomaterials as a supplementation to the "classical" methods of birth control may acquire a significant impact on reducing the percentage of HIV-positive women in Third World countries.

Gilles-Eric Seralini's study on GM Maize - Controversies

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Gilles-Eric Seralini, a French university professor of molecular biology and a researcher at Institute of Fundamental and Applied Biology is the author of much controversial studies about genetically modified Monsanto corn, called the NK603, in the year of 2012. Crystal clear details of many aspects of this study are not yet available. Seralini’s study is one among the very ill received studies by the scientific community. Seralini conducted studies on genetically modified corn called NK603. The NK603 has been developed as a herbicide resistant crop. It has been modified to be resistant to glyphosate, which will allow its use as a weed control on NK603 crops. This was achieved by obtaining and inserting a particular gene for 5-enolpyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) and associated regulatory genes. The gene for EPSPS is obtained from Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Seralini used rats for conducting his studies and they were focused on long term toxic effects of Monsanto Company’s Roundup herbicide and Roundup herbicide resistant genetically modified corn. The rats were fed with corn obtained from NK603 regularly for two years. Results of the study stated that the rodents fed with GM food died earlier than the control group of rats. Also on inspection they were found to have more tumors, liver and kidney toxicity than the control group. Female rats showed more defects than the male rats. The female ones were found to be more prone to tumors and showed higher chances of mortality.

Seralini had conducted similar experiments in 2007 also. Then he used MON 863 for the study purposes. MON 863 is also a genetically modified corn from Monsanto Company of USA. Mon 863 contained gene, which was inserted using recombinant DNA technology, which encodes an insecticidal protein, from Bacillus thuringiensis. This protein enables the crop to be resistant towards corn root worm. Seralini’s studies on long term effects of MON 863 said that on prolonged use of MON 863 corn animals that consume it will develop liver and kidney toxicity. Females recorded around 40% increase in fat and up to 10% increase in the blood sugar levels. In males it caused severe kidney damage resulting in weight loss of the body, according to the study.

Seralini’s both studies were ill received by the scientists all over the world. Many of the results of the studies were not proven clearly. Many, including the European food safety watchdog, European Food Safety Authority and Monsanto Company themselves came forward providing necessary explanations for Seralini’s findings. These explanations said that Seralini’s study did not have scientific adequacy that is needed for such a study which will make mass effects. The EFSA reviewed the study results on request of European Commission. According to EFSA the study was not properly designed. It did not have a proper methodology too. Due to its nature there were lots of critics who needed clarification for the results of the study. Seralini failed to give satisfactory answers to the critics too. EFSA in its conclusion, decided not to take any immediate action that will go against the GM foods that are currently in market. Similar explanations were provided by Monsanto Company also. They stated that the amount or quality or source of the diet is not made clear by the scientists involved in the study and still they are unable to provide any clear information about this data. Monsanto says that this study do not meet the research standards set by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, for such a high level study. Any test results of blood or urine sample analysis to support the conclusion of the study was not provided. Any data for establishing the results solidly were absent.

Associated studies are being conducted and results of related other researches were taken and presented to the public by Monsanto Company to prove that NK603 is completely safe for consumption. According to product safety statement by Monsanto Company cancer studies conducted on effects of glyphosate in last 35 years have proved that it do not cause any cancer/tumor in any of the rodent species. Glyphosate has not been proved as an endocrine disrupter. Monsanto also states that Roundup has been passed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Seralini failed to give any correct mechanism of action of NK603 in the tumor inducing effects. Many of the critical data are insufficient. These data include source of control maize, applied pesticide, diet preparation, and statistical data on mortality rate and tumor rate. Any data regarding the histopathology examinations of kidney and liver, liver function tests and cytochrome activity are completely absent. Consistency of occurrence of the symptoms was not recorded correctly in order to prove that the test results will repeat on further similar experiments.

Gilles Eric Seralini responded to critics with his own explanations for the questions raised against the study results. Seralini said that the NK603 got approval for production and human consumption only on the basis of a 90 day trial on the same strain of rat. For the criticisms stating that glyphosate cannot induce any tumor effects, he responded that his studies never used glyphosate as such, rather he used the samples that contain Roundup herbicide and the genetically modified Roundup herbicide resistant NK603 corn. Seralini claims that criticisms are severe against him only because his test results will affect many patents and approvals of genetically modified organisms that are in queue. He points out that this is not a final study about the toxic effects of the concerned products and is only a start to a major set of studies that will reveal the real effects of many of such products. Seralini provides answers for each major criticism and states that no guidelines currently exist for study of genetically modified organisms according to Organization for Economic Co-operation and development. Seralini enlists his study only in a toxicological study section rather than in a carcinogenesis study. He says statistical data is a not a key factor here as they are not the supreme methods to prove a result and are only one among a way to better understand the result.

The debates and controversies on the study of NK603 and Roundup herbicide are continuing. Many nations are responding to this study in an act as a precaution about the safety of GM foods. To obtain a final verdict on the toxicological effect of NK603 further studies are yet needed anyway. And these studies must have data sufficient to solidly prove the outcome.

Chromosome Micro Analysis in Prenatal Testing

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Prenatal tests are gaining more and more importance day by day, as parents are being highly concerned about their unborn baby. This is in turn to drop down any chances of still births or babies with congenital diseases. Until recent, karyotyping was the major method of analyzing for all the defects that could be figured out from the chromosomes.

Karyotyping is mostly used to find out those conditions like change in numbers of the chromosomes. It can be done by collection of amniotic fluid (by amniocentesis), bone marrow, blood, or from a tissue obtained from placenta. Karyotyping reveals data about number of chromosomes and changes in the structure of chromosome only. It can be used for finding out congenital conditions like Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome etc. These are only conditions that involve a change in the number of chromosomes that the karyotyping can reveal. Chromosomal Micro Analysis (CMA) gained popularity here, because it can detect a wide variety of serious genetic disorders that could not be revealed by the conventional chromosome analysis including those like autism.

Chromosome micro analysis makes use of the characteristic of DNA to specifically bind, which are said as the base pairs, adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine pairs. In order to do the chromosomal micro analysis, a reference DNA is taken from known genes. This reference gene is one without any defects. Single strand of this DNA is obtained and labeled with fluorescent color. Then the DNA of the fetus is taken from the chorionic villus sampling (CVS) or from amniotic fluid, which leaves prenatal testing to still use invasive methods for sample collection, and labeled with another fluorescent color. It is also made into single strands of DNA and labeled with a fluorescent color. It should be noted that the reference DNA strand and subject’s DNA sample are labeled with different fluorescent colors. Commonly used fluorescent dyes are red and green. Both the strands are allowed to mix together in a chip where both of them bind together. Regions with any defects in the genetic material can be understood from the variations in the fluorescent color at that particular region of the strands. A micro array scanner is used for detecting the color variations. The color depends on the amount of mutual binding between both the strands. In case of duplication, the color of strand of fetus will be stronger and if it is a case of deletion, then the reference strand will be showing stronger fluorescent color. Deletion and duplication thus results in less and more combination respectively, between the reference DNA and the DNA of the fetus. The data obtained from the scanner is fed into specific computer software that can interpret the color variations and to obtain a detailed report. From identifying the locations of defects on the genes, the possible problems that the fetus will be facing when it is born, can be predicted.

Basically there are two types of chromosome micro analysis. This is depended on the type of the probe used. They are the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) and the oligo nucleotide probes. Both of these probes are used to find its applications in two different situations. Bacterial artificial chromosome probes are longer in length than the oligo probes. So they will detect the larger changes, while the oligo probes are able to detect smaller alterations.

Chromosomal micro analysis takes a deeper look at the chromosomes for possible abnormalities. One of the most important advantages of CMA is that the samples do not require any culturing preventing chances of introduction of artifacts or of degradation. CMA will give a better analysis of the measure and content of the chromosomal imbalance. It can detect micro deletion/duplication and subtelomeric deletion/duplication, that karyotyping cannot find out. CMA will provide accurate genotype-phenotype correlation. It is one among the prenatal tests which can be relied completely with the test results. The list of the diseases that CMA is capable of finding out includes Angelman syndrome, Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, Williams’s syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, autism, congenital cardiac disorders etc. In figures, chromosomal micro Analysis can detect around 150 diseases caused by defects in the genes. Because of prediction of possible diseases that may affect a fetus, at the time of birth or during its lifetime, precautions can be taken. This will help in order to prevent the diseases more effectively rather than diagnosing and treating it at the time of its occurrence at a later stage. Bh.

Chromosome micro analysis gives about 100 times better resolution than normal karyotyping methods for prenatal test. But, being a comparatively new test it is only considered as a secondary option in prenatal testing. Around 8% of newborns have got some kind of disease that is genetically related. And hence can be found out using chromosome micro analysis. So by extensive use of chromosome micro analysis as a primary option in pre natal testing almost all of these can be found earlier and proper treatments and precautions for prevention or management of the diseases can be done. Specific causes for these diseases can be analyzed, which will enable us to classify the genetic disorders based on whether the cause is a deletion or duplication. This will help in specifically giving treatment to each set of diseases.

One of the major disadvantages of chromosome micro analysis is that we still cannot avoid using the regular karyotyping methods. This is because it is unable to give any information about conditions of polyploidy. Still, karyotyping is needed for detecting polyploidy conditions. Another limitation is that it will not identify any reversed sections in the DNA. It will recognize only the unpaired part that will be seen as irregular pairing on the strands. So those symptoms associated with a balanced and reversed base pairing cannot be identified using the chromosome micro analysis method. It will not find out the single base pair reversing too, as it is very minute to produce any fluorescent color changes.

The use of chromosomal micro analysis that uses techniques of DNA micro arrays will help to detect a good number of diseases associated genetically, and to take precautions or preventive methods for preventing or managing the condition. It should be done as one of the primary tests during pregnancy period.

Influenza-Antivirotics Mechanisms of Action

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Viruses are very small infectious agents consisting of nucleic acids (RNA or DNA) wrapped with the shield made of proteins or capsid. The virus lives solely as a parasite, it has no its own metabolism but it uses metabolism of the host for the synthesis and assembly of their active particles – virions.

The Life Cycle of The Virus

The life cycle of the virus is very simple. The virus enters the body and finds the suitable cells. Then it enters the cells by penetrating the cell membrane and releases its genetic material, DNA or RNA. The genetic material of the virus enters the nucleus of the host cell and uses host enzymes for the synthesis of cellular mRNA which controls the synthesis of new elements for the construction of new viruses through the ribosome. These protein components are expressed on the cell surface. Replicated viral genetic material gets out of the host cell nucleus and travels to the surface of the cell, where using already created protein elements thousands of new viruses are assembled.


The main difficulty in designing of antiviral drugs is the nature of virus itself, as an obligate intracellular parasite, which has the reproductive cycle completely related to infected cell functioning. One of the most important tasks is to get the selectivity in antiviral drugs action.

Antiviral Drugs

Antiviral drugs act mainly by blocking the synthesis of viral DNA or RNA by inhibition of certain enzymes, while others block some other important steps in the life cycle of the virus. It is important to stress that there are antivirotics only for a few viruses, for other viruses there are vaccines and immunoglobulins, while for some viruses there is simply no effective treatment.
According to research conducted at The University of Iowa, antiviral drugs prevent the replication and spread of influenza virus type A by binding to the proton channel through which the virus penetrates the healthy cells. These findings are published 4th February 2012 in the journal Nature.

The New Research on Antivirotics Mechanism of Action

Mei Hong and John D. Corbett, a professor of chemistry at the University of Iowa and the Ames Laboratory associate at the Department of Energy in the United States, said that these results clarify results of previous, often contradictory studies and should direct the development of new antiviral drugs, primarily for various types of influenza, including pandemic H1N1.

Two papers released in 2008 in the journal Nature offer two different conclusions about where the antiviral drug Amantadine binds to a flu virus and how to prevent infection of the healthy cells. The work based on the x-ray shows that the drug binds to the lumen of the proton channel, travels inside the channel and blocks it, thus inactivating the virus. Another work is based on the technology of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and it concluded that the drug binds to the viral surface protein, near the proton channel, and the virus is inactivated indirectly by changing the structure of the proton channel.

Hong’s research indicates that Amantadine, when in pharmacologically relevant amount of one molecule per channel, connects to the inner surface of the proton channel. However, research has shown that the drug, at a high concentration in the membrane, binds also to a secondary active site located on the surface of the viral proteins near the channel. "Our research is based on nuclear magnetic resonance in solid and irrefutably shows that the drug binds to the lumen of the channel, while the secondary active site binds only when it is in excess," says Hong. "The previous research, which relied on NMR in liquid, was using as much as 200 times the amount of medication needed, which would explain their results on how the drug binds to the active site of surfactants. The solution to this confusion means that chemists can now focus on developing drugs that will target real active site of the channel. "

Here's how the influenza virus uses proton channel and how Amantadine blocks the channel: viral infection begins with viruses binding to healthy cells. Healthy cell surrounds the flu virus and draw it into the cell using the process called endocytosis. Once it is inside the cell, the virus uses the protein called M2 to open a channel to a healthy cell. Through this channel protons from the healthy cells enter the virus and increase its acidity. This in turn drives the release of viral genetic material into the healthy cell. The virus then takes over cell resources to reproduce and spread viral particles. When Amantadine binds to the cell and blocks the M2 proton channel, the process stops, and the virus is no longer able to infect the cell.


Hong and his team have developed powerful techniques to study the proton channel using NMR spectroscopy, the technology of medical imaging using magnetic resonance. These technique allows them a detailed insight into the position of antiviral drug within the proton channel, and the scientists have been using it successfully to analyze the structure of the protein active site and to determine very accurately the distance between the drug and the protein. Scientists have also discovered that Amantadine rotates while binding to the active site within the proton channel. That means it do not fill the channel. Hong says this opens up a lot of room for development of new drugs that could block the channel better, thus stopping the flu, and also avoiding the development of resistance to the drug.

Klaus Schmidt-Rohr, a chemistry professor at the University of Iowa and the Ames Laboratory chemist superior, Sarah Cady, PhD student and external associate of the chemistry department of the University of Iowa, William DeGrado, George W. Raiziss professor of biochemistry and biophysics and a professor of chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania; Cinque S. Soto, a doctoral student in the department of biochemistry and biophysics at the University Pennsylvania and Jun Wang, a graduate student in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania, are other contributors to this study. The study was financed through donations. National Science Foundation has donated 687 411 dollars, 616 $ 295 donated by the National Institutes of Health.

California's Proposition 37: Why its failure to pass is a good thing

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Proposition 37, or California Right To Know Genetically Engineered Food Act:

On November 8, 2012, the biotechnology community had its collective eyes on California: a question was placed on public ballot that would have a far-reaching impact on the biotechnology community in general and the food industry in particular. It was called Proposition 37, or California Right To Know Genetically Engineered Food Act and it would require all food that was either completely produced through the means of genetic engineering or food products containing ingredients that were derived by genetic engineering would have to be labelled as such on the packaging. This labeling would provide consumers with information on what they were buying and would further enable consumers to make proper food choices. If Proposition 37 had passed, California would be the only state in the country with mandatory GMO (genetic modified organism) labeling on food. However, by a six-point margin, about 53-47 percent (Miller, 2012 http://www.kcet.org), it was defeated in the voting booth. The food movement is seeing this defeat as a crushing blow blaming Big Ag for investing large amounts of money into the campaign in order to defeat Prop 37. However, the way economists have viewed the defeat was as a means to prevent the passing of a piece of legislature that would cost millions of dollars for the state of California in its implementation and regulation and have far reaching implications to the whole food industry at large. This article will attempt to summarize what Proposition 37 had set out to do and present some of the implications of the ruling had it passed. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov)

With the completion of the Human Genome Project in 2003 and the techniques associated with making this monumental achievement possible, genetic engineering clearly became a game-changer for modern science. The ability to be able to transfer a single part of an organism’s DNA and place it into another organism, usually through microinjection of embryos, and have that trait expressed in the recipient organism saw new advancements in creating new animal models for studying diseases like cancer, obesity and diabetes. It also saw the application of genetic engineering techniques in the creation of crops that could withstand extreme climate changes, even have resistance to pests and pesticides. Some of the most common genetically engineered plants today are corn and soybeans. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov)

An analysis performed in 2011 found that about 80 percent of all of our corn produced in this country is produced through the use of GE seeds. GE foods are also used to make food ingredients, such as high fructose corn syrup, which are also included in processed food products such as processed baked goods. In California alone, about 40 percent to 70 percent of food products in grocery stores contain some GE food ingredients. However, despite these advancements there are always questions and fears by those that do not understand the technology. Many people don’t know what the effects of ingesting GE foods would have on their bodies and many have concerns about the transference of unwanted genetic material. Also many religious groups have food limitations and restrictions and these people are concerned that they will unwittingly ingest something that their religious doctrines have prohibited. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov) These are all valid concerns by consumers and the fact of the matter is that there haven’t been many studies conducted that had demonstrated that GE foods were unsafe. Those that argued in favor of Proposition 37 say that they don’t know how safe GE foods are but that they, as consumers, should have the right to decide for themselves what they and their families eat.

Currently in the state of California, the Federal government does not specifically require the regulation of GE foods, however the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has placed certain restrictions on the use of GE crops that have been shown to be harmful to other plants. The U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is cited with the task of ensuring that most food ingredients and additives are safe, regardless of whether they were produced through the use of genetic engineering and that they have some form of labeling on their packaging.

At the time Prop 37 was put to a vote, California’s existing law held that state agencies were not specifically required to regulate GE foods. However, it is the responsibility of the state’s Department of Public Health (DPHS) to regulate the safety and labeling of most foods. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov)

Under the proposed provision, all GE foods sold in California stores must be properly labeled as either containing genetic engineered products and ingredients, or have been produced using genetic engineering.. It would also require the Department of Public Health to implement the new provision and regulate the labeling of such foods. It would also give individuals the ability to sue food manufacturers for violation of the measure’s labeling provisions. All raw foods including fruits and vegetables either produced in part or entirely by means of genetic engineering would be labeled with the words “Genetically Engineered”, “Partially Produced with Genetic Engineering” or “May be Partially Produced with Genetic Engineering” on the front of the package or label. If the item is not in a package or does not have a label, those words must appear somewhere on the shelf where the item is being displayed. Retailers, such as grocery stores would be held primarily responsible to ensure compliance with the measure by making sure all their food products are correctly labeled. If a product was not adequately labeled, the retailer has to be able to document why that product is exempt from labeling. This documentation could be obtained in two ways: either the wholesaler of the product has provided a sworn written statement that the product was not intentionally or knowingly genetically engineered or by receiving independent certification that the product does not contain any GE ingredients. Other facilities along the food industry supply chain including farmers and food manufacturers must also be responsible for maintaining those records. The provision also provides certain exemptions from labeling of other products like alcoholic beverages, such as beer and wine, milk and diary products and raw meat and fish. Beef and chicken would also be exempted from labeling regardless of whether they have ingested grain that was produced through genetic engineering. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov)

As economists have analyzed the financial feasibility of Proposition 37 this provision would not only affect the food industry supply chain within the state of California, it would also have an enormous impact on other states supplying food and food ingredients into California. Other states would also have to conform to the same provisions as California food supply facilities under the Proposition 37 statute. Global suppliers as well would also have to comply with these same standards for any GE food products entering California. The cost of litigation to maintain the regulations would be considerably high and economists that were studying the feasibility of Prop 37 suggested that if the provision passed the high costs of maintaining the regulations, provision compliance, and any possible litigations that individual consumers happened to make, would take its toll on the state’s economy overall. (http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov)

Still even with the failure to pass Prop 37, the debate over the safety of GE foods will remain. There’s no question that having plants that have better crop yields and withstand pests and extreme weather conditions is a huge boon to the food industry. It has been suggested that GE foods should be placed under the same scrutiny by the performance of clinical trial studies to ensure the safety of these unique products. However just as we are given warning labels on the drugs we take either over the counter or through prescription, don’t we also have the right to know what is in our food that we consume every day? These are questions that still remain to be answered.

References
Miller, E (November, 2012) Why Prop 37 failed. Commentary. downloaded from http://www.kcet.org/socal/food/prop-37/c...iled.html.

California General Election Website Prop 37 Genetically Engineered Foods Labelling Initiative Statute
Downloaded from http://www.votersguide.sos.ca.gov/propositions/37

Bionsensor Workshop in Bangalore

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Time Frame: Two Day Workshop
Date: 26th and 27th February 2013
Venue: The Chancery Pavilion, 135 Residency Road, Bangalore - 560025

Overview

To provide:

• An introduction to the biosensor market with consideration of the key drivers for future research and development
• An overview of the principle manufacturing techniques in the field.
• An in depth look towards market trends and possible future technological advances.


• The course will be delivered in the form of a two day workshop. Cranfield’s position in the Biosensors market is unique and we have been working at the forefront of this technology for over 25 years. The programme will be delivered by Cranfield’s world recognised experts in the field and will focus on chemical pathology (hospital) based biosensors, blood glucose biosensors for use by diabetic patients – and emerging technologies in the field of biomedical point-of-care testing.

• The importance of diabetes as both a medical and economic driver for biosensor development will be reviewed. Each of the main classes of biomedical biosensors ranging from hospital chemical pathology based devices through to hand-held portable biosensors for use by sufferers of diabetes will be covered.

• Depending on the experience and background of the course delegates, the programme has a flexible structure to provide time for interactive questions and discussions throughout. This approach will allow each individual to achieve his or her own personal learning requirements.


Who should attend?
This course is intended for individuals/professionals, academics or industrialists with interests in the field of biosensors - ranging from research through to manufacturing, commercialization or marketing.


Focus

The course concentrates on:

• An introduction to the field of biosensors
• An overview of the history and development of this sector
• Coverage of all key manufacturing steps contributing to the commercial manufacture of commercial biosensors for biomedical applications
• An in depth market analysis outlining the market opportunities in this field
• Future trends within the biosensors, point of care and related medical diagnostics sectors
• State-of-the art technological reviews.


Key Take aways

Delegates will leave the course with:

• A thorough understanding of the biosensors market, its development and history.
• An in-depth understanding of the technological advances in this market both historically and looking towards the future. This is due to Cranfield’s unique position within this field and our long-standing heritage in this arena.
• An understanding of all the key manufacturing steps contributing to the commercial production of blood glucose biosensors and other commercial biosensors.
• The ability to accurately predict and track future market trends in this sector
• A network of commercial contacts currently working in this exciting market
• An understanding of the market entry barriers and enablers experienced by the producers in the North American and European markets.
• An ongoing relationship with Cranfield’s academic community to provide future support and advice.


Facilitators

Professor Higson:

Professor Higson's current research interests are primarily focused towards practical implementation of electro-analytical science and analytical biochemistry for biomedical, environmental and industrial process control applications.




Dr Holmes

Dr Joanne Holmes is a team member of Cranfield Health’s Translational Medicine group. Her primary research interest is the development of bio- and immunosensors and interrogation of a number of biologically modified surfaces utilizing the scanning electrochemical microscope.



Event Contact Details :
Usha +919986034262 / Jawad +919901853717 / Jyoti +919740540000
Email: events@aeme.in Website: http://www.aeme.in

Advances and Opportunities in Bioinformatics

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Dr. Vijay Chandru Chairman & CEO, Strand Life Sciences will speak on the advances and opportunities in Bioinformatics on the 2nd day of Bangalore India Bio 2013.

To know more visit http://www.bangaloreindiabio.in

Dormant TB Bacteria's Hide-out Found

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Even in the presence of effective treatments for tuberculosis, the threat it possessed was not completely stripped down, thanks to the recurrence of the disease. Patients who had their disease completely cured by medication are found to be the subjects of the same again. This happened either due to the re infection of bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes the disease in most cases, or due to the re activation of the bacteria that are residing dormant inside the human body. Most cases of recurrence are due to the re activation of dormant bacteria inside the body, according to recent studies. But no methods are developed until now, to block this re activation as we did not know the hide outs of the dormant TB bacteria until now. The location of the hide outs of the dormant TB bacteria have been found out in studies conducted by a group of scientists lead by Dr Bikul Das from Departments of Medicine and Pathology at Stanford University.

Bikul Das found out that the dormant TB bacteria are residing in the bone marrow according to the studies published in the Science Translational Medicine journal of January 31. These bacteria are in a non replicating, dormant but viable state. This explains the reason why it can get reactivated.

The discovery of the hide outs of dormant TB bacteria was a result of keen observation of Bikul Das on the bone marrow biopsy results of numerous patients. Planning to proceed with working on bone marrow transplantations, Bikul Das did numerous bone marrow biopsies. The biopsies were mainly done on victims of diseases like kala azar, malaria, tuberculosis etc. In the procedures he also looked for TB bacteria through the Acid Fasting Bacillus (AFB) staining. He noted AFB positive bacteria inside the bone marrow. It was at this point when he got the hypothesis that dormant TB bacteria must be residing in the bone marrow cells. But he was not sure whether they were stem cells or progenitor cells as the biopsies cannot reveal any such data.

The later studies were started by taking bone marrow cells of healthy humans and doing in vitro experiments. These in vitro experiments were to check whether the TB bacteria can occupy the bone marrow cells in the in vitro conditions, so as to give hope to further studies on chances of finding bone marrow cells infected with the bacteria. The in vitro experiments showed positive results. They showed that certain bone marrow cells provided shelter for the TB bacteria. Certain bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSC) like the CD 271 showed more chances of permission for entry of TB bacteria. Studies were further conducted in the infected cells. These in vitro infected cells were closely observed for several days after the infection. Then it was found out that the infected TB bacteria multiplied around three to four times after the infection, within three to four days. But it showed no signs of any development ahead, and stayed dormant as itself. These bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells are capable of differentiating into any type of specialized cell in the body. They also found that the bacteria can reside in the bone marrow cells only until it gets differentiated. That means once a bone marrow gets differentiated the viable state of bacteria is lost and it is destroyed. After the in vitro studies experiments were done on mice. Group of mice were introduced to TB bacteria through aerosols, and infecting them with the same. The experiments in mice were aimed at demonstrating the capability of TB bacteria in migrating to the bone marrow cells after infection. This experiment also showed positive results when they examined the bone marrow mesenchymal cells after four weeks of infection. More tests revealed presence of viable TB bacteria in the lung mesenchymal stem cells too. In the next step of the studies they tried to find out whether the dormant bacteria can cause infection or not. For this purpose they took dormant non replicating TB bacteria from the lung mesenchymal stem cells of mice, and introduced into lungs of healthy mice. This also produced positive results when they found lung granulomas in the healthy group of mice who were introduced to the dormant TB bacteria.

Final stages of study were done using samples taken from the Idu Mishimi people, who are a group of tribal people belonging to the Mishimi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh state of India. The samples were of individuals who were successfully treated with using anti TB drugs. For the mentioned, nine people were selected and a control group of strength six was taken beside. While the control group showed no measurable dormant TB bacteria within their bone marrow cells, eight of nine people from the experimental group showed presence of dormant TB bacteria in the CD 271 bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells.

This important discovery will cause a turning point in the treatment of tuberculosis. Until recent, the recurrence of TB was only a quiz that needed to be resolved with many answers to many other questions. The most important of those questions were about the location of the dormant TB bacteria, which has been answered now. This also explains why the treatment of TB is difficult. The bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells provided the TB bacteria protection from the immune system. Inside these bone marrow cells they won’t be exposed to the TB drugs either. This increased the chances of re activation of the bacteria. Speculations that this study provided effective treatments for TB, was ruled out by Dean W.Felsher of Stanford University. He stated that, “Our work is only a basic research and does not provide any therapy for patients with tuberculosis. We do hope that our work will provide potentially new scientific approaches that may lead to new treatments for TB.”

We can expect effective treatments for TB in near future, thanks to this highly relevant study. Treatment for TB which can promise a complete cure and rule out any chances of recurrence of the disease can now be made available.

Mutagenesis.

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What mutagens to use to make a new phenotype in a plant?

International Conference on Next Generation Bioinformatics -SRM Feb 25-27

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International Conference on Next Generation Bioinformatics aims at establishing the network among scientists and students across the globe. This will serve as the platform for the students and the researchers to share the latest development in the field of bioinformatics. The renowned scientists who are currently working in Biological data mining, Genomics, Proteomics, Pharmacogenomics, Immunoinformatics, Drug discovery, Systems Biology and Next Generation Sequencing have accepted to share and exchange their expertise with the participants. This will strongly encourage the young minds to put their effort in bringing marvels in Bioinformatics thereby helping the man-kind.

Contact

Prof. Dr. Waheeta Hopper
Head, Department of Bioinformatics
School of Bioengineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
SRM University, Kattankulathur, 603203, India
Tel:044 27452270, 27417813
Mobile: 9840777395
Email: icngb.2013@srmuniv.ac.in

For other informations, check the following link...

http://www.srmuniv.ac.in/icngb13/index.html

Best regards,

International Conference on Next Generation Bioinformatics organization commitee

College after Biotech

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Hello all. I was wanting to see what others think is a great continuation. After my Biotech degree I am wanting to continue my studies. What I ultimately want to be involved in is the search for cures of cancer using plant species and animal toxins and venoms from the rainforest. What should I take next? Plant Biology? Biology? or what.Huh

If tried emailing my Prof.'s to see what they think,but they haven't replied. I figured they are just too busy.

An Introduction on Chemical Carcinogens

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We are exposed to ‘n’ number of chemicals everyday in both indoor and outdoor environment. The essential household products we use like toothpaste, soap, shampoos, detergents, drugs/medicines, floor and toilet cleaners, insect repellents, food additives, paints are all chemicals. In the same way we are exposed to chemicals in the outdoor environment while travelling or in work places with or without our knowledge. Any product meant for human use is evaluated for its safety before reaching the market. Toxicology, a branch of science takes the predominant position in evaluating the adverse effects of pharmacological drugs and chemicals on animals or humans, their metabolic pathway once entering the biological system and the biotransformation of such chemicals inside the body. This gives complete knowledge on the toxic effects, details on dosage and length of exposure causing undesirable effect, the metabolic pathway and its target site/organ of the studied chemical which makes the process of identifying the effect and treating the exposed individual easier.

Based on the adverse effect developed by a chemical it is classified either as a toxicant or carcinogen. The difference is that the damage caused by the former category is reversible whereas the damage caused by the chemicals under the latter category “carcinogens” is irreversible. Carcinogens are the substances with the potential to cause cancer in the exposed individual or animal and there are many chemicals identified with carcinogenic property. The history of chemical carcinogenesis states the first identified chemicals to be carcinogens were soot, coal tar, aromatic amine and azo dyes.

The intensity of the effect of a chemical carcinogen on the host is governed by various factors. Those include,
• Dose of the chemical
• Length of exposure
• Metabolic pathway (from the point of entry to the target organ)
• Biotransformation (Resultant product after the metabolism of the chemical in the body which may be more toxic than the original compound)
• Species, age and gender of the subject
• Altered carcinogenicity of the chemical on interaction with other environmental factors

Classification
Chemical carcinogens are classified into Genotoxic and non Genotoxic compounds based on their potential to cause damage to the DNA of the exposed animal or man. Those chemical carcinogens which alter the genetic material of the exposed individual can also be called as mutagens.

Yet another classification of chemical carcinogens is made based on the requirement of metabolic activation of the chemical to deliver the effect. Accordingly they are classified as primary chemical carcinogens, secondary chemical carcinogens and promoters.

Primary chemical carcinogens are the chemicals whose effect is seen immediately at the point of entry itself even without undergoing metabolism. Alkylimine, triethylenemelamine, mustard gas are some of the examples.

Secondary chemical carcinogens are also called as procarcinogens are the chemicals whose effects are observed in the exposed individual due to the resultant product of metabolism of the compound in the system. Thee metabolically activated forms of Benzanthracene, aflatoxinB1, safrole, carbon tetrachloride are some of the procarcinogens.

Next class is the promoters which are also called as cocarcinogens are the chemicals which are not only carcinogenic but also acts as inducers stimulating the carcinogenic property of other chemicals.

Exposure to Chemical carcinogens
Indoor Exposure: Formaldehyde, perchloroethylene, paradichlorobenzene, cigarette smoke, trisodium nitrilotriacetate, asbestos are some of the compounds present in indoor environment in the form of various products or accessories are carcinogenic in nature.

Outdoor Exposure: Regular exposure to compounds like Arsenic, benzene, beryllium, cadmium, hexavalent chromium (VI), nickel, ethylene oxide in work places causes cancer. Persons who are at risk of such exposures in industries should follow the prescribed guidelines of occupational health and safety measures in order to avoid risking their health.

Apart from the above discussed chemical carcinogens the other two types of carcinogens are physical and biological carcinogens. Ultra violet rays is the best example of physical carcinogen, exposure to which causes skin cancer and viruses with the potential to alter the genetic material of the host cell causing cancer are biological carcinogens. Human Papilloma virus, Hepatitis B and C virus are examples of cancer causing viruses.

Not all toxicants are carcinogenic. The ability to cause irreversible damage, the additive effect at each exposure, the mechanism of action on the basic genetic material, increased potential in the presence of other substances all makes a carcinogen differ from a toxicant.

Can Viruses treat Acne? Best Antibiotics against Acne

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How virus can save us from acne and which antibiotics are the most helpful against acne?

Around 85% of people in the world will experience problem with acne at least once in their life, while 40% of teens will have to deal with them during puberty. Between 40 and 50 million people is dealing with acne issue just in America. Cosmetic industry spends ~400 million dollars annually to find ideal drug or cream that could eliminate acne. So far, perfect solution has not been found, but pharmacies offer wide variety of creams and lotions that could minimize problems with skin to the some extent.

Recent discovery of 11 types of viruses which colonize human skin and kill bacteria responsible for acne forced dermatologists to look for acne solution in other direction. Bacteriophages are viruses that live and replicate inside bacterial cells. When they finish replication and become ready to find another “host” cell, they will release special enzyme called endolysin to digests bacterial peptidoglycans (building material of the cell wall). Without cell wall bacteria will die. Bacteriophages target Propionibacterium acnes (causative agent of acnes) specifically while human cells are of no interest for them. Unlike other virus species found in the nature, this group of bacteriophages showed extremely high percentage of genetic similarity - 85%, which means that all types of bacteriphages use the same mechanism to destroy bacterial cells. 95% of all viruses contain conserved DNA region that ecodes enzyme used in bacterial wall digestion - endolysin. Scientists speculate that acne can develop in people that don’t have large enough population of bacteriophages: without viruses to destroy them, bacteria will survive and induce inflammatory proccess in the skin resulting in acne formation. Everything discovered so far is very promising and scientists hope that they will find a way to isolate endolysin and turn it into new acne medicine in the near future.

Antibiotics are also often used to treat acne. Main issue with antibiotics is resistance that bacteria develop after some time (they are successful at the beginning, but their efficacy is time-limited) or duration of treatment (when people stop taking antibiotics therapy - acne will appear again).

Most commonly used antibiotics in treatment of acne:

- Tetracycline is a polyketide antibiotic of broad-spectrum of activity that inhibits protein synthesis in bacterial cell (bacteriostatic). Tetracycline could be found under brand names: Sumycin, Tetracyn, and Panmycin. Side effects associated with this drug are increased sensitivity to sun and reduced effectiveness of contraception (recorded in women using contraceptive pills).

- Erythomycin belongs to the class of macrolide antibiotics. It prevents protein synthesis and inhibits growth of bacteria, similarly to the action of penicillin (people allergic to penicillin can use it). It is available under various brand names: Robimycin, E-Mycin, Erythroped…This antibiotic could be used during pregnancy. Main adverse effects are associated with upset stomach and nausea.

- Clindamycine belongs to a group of lincosamide bacteriostatic antibiotics. It can be found under several brand names: Dalacin, Lincocin and Daclin. It is effective against anaerobic bacteria. Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea is common side effect. C. difficile is resistant to clindamycine and it releases potent toxin that induces various pathologies in the intestine. It can be fatal if not treated on time.

- Doxycycline is another antibiotic from the tetracycline class. It is used when tetracycline and erythromycin are ineffective. This antibiotic can be found under several brand names: Vibramycin, Monodox, Microdox, Periostat…It increases sensitivity to sun (sunburns are often side effect of this antibiotic).

- Minocycline has broad specter of activity and it belongs to the tetracycline class. It can be found under following brand names: Minomycin, Akamin, Minocin, Minoderm, Cyclimycin…It has bacteriostatic effects. This antibiotic is associated with CNS related side effects, like vertigo. It also induces vomiting, nausea and it may lead to skin discoloration when used prolonged period of time.

- Benzoyl peroxide is organic compound used in acne treatment. Numerous lotions, soaps and creams used in acne treatment contain benzoyl peroxide. It increases skin turnover (works as peeling agent), induces pore cleaning and directly decrease bacterial number as antimicrobial agent. Some people show increased sensitivity toward this compound.

Number of available skin care products continually rise and improve. With latest discoveries in the fields of acne - optimal solution could be closer than we think.

(Sent by BojanaL)
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